and the travels continue

The last post is my essay for Art History on the Chigi Chapel, which we are required to post on our blog. I still have to write my essay for Gifts and Sacrifice and then I will be done with the program!

Well we went to Amsterdam yesterday (what a crazy city) and are leaving for Berlin tomorrow. I leave for Seattle next Saturday, August 8th. This will be my last week in Europe! I am sad to leave but also ready to be back home again.

The Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo

The Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo is a chapel of many layers. Two different Chigi patrons, one a wealthy banker and one a powerful pope, provided funding for the project. The chapel also showcases the work of two renowned artists from different time periods, Raphael from the Renaissance and Bernini from the Baroque. Both artists were able to work their influence into the chapel using the respective styles that made them famous. As a result of their efforts, the chapel creates a scene of resurrection from death and immortal life, serving both a religious and a commemorative function. The chapel illustrates the roles of patrons in the creation of art as well as the unique styles of the Renaissance and the Baroque.

The Chigi family originally hailed from Siena, where they were known as bankers and merchants. Agostino Chigi, who would eventually purchase the Chigi Chapel, was born in Siena in 1466. He moved to Rome in 1487 to open his own bank at the young age of 21. Agostino was very successful in the banking business, and by 1500 he was undoubtedly the richest man in Rome, with an income of 70,000 ducats a year (Rowland 194). Agostino loved to show off his wealth, and therefore earned the name “il Magnifico” because of his patronage of the arts. Although he made no profit from spending money on art, he was able to build his reputation and gain prestige. One scholar notes, “the rewards of such ‘cultural investments’ were not entirely intangible, for a humanist, in Agostino’s society, could provide what amounted to an erudite public relations campaign” (Rowland 194). Ultimately, Agostino’s goal was to “ court immortal fame through works of art and architecture” (Rowland 198).

Agostino Chigi

Agostino also had friends in high places, most notably Julius II, the della Rovere pope. He funded many of Julius II’s projects, and at one time, Agostino actually held the papal tiara as collateral for a loan (Majanlahti 322). In 1509, Julius II allowed Agostino and his brother, Sigismondo, to take the della Rovere name and add the della Rovere oak tree to the Chigi coat of arms, which originally consisted of six mounds. Julius II then gave Agostino the permission to purchase a chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo that would also serve as a mausoleum for both Agostino and Sigismondo. Agostino’s choice of Santa Maria del Popolo as the site of his mausoleum was not arbitrary; it was the church of the della Rovere, and had been rebuilt by Julius II’s uncle (Jones and Penny 100). It therefore cemented the connection between the della Rovere and the Chigi families. Further, the church belonged to the Augustinian order, and for somebody with a name like Agostino, a connection with Augustus could only help his reputation.

Agostino decided to commission Raphael to plan and execute the Chigi Chapel. The two had worked together before, most notably in the Villa Farnesina, which houses Raphael’s Triumph of Galatea fresco. Born in Umbria, Raphael studied in Florence for four years, where great artists like Michelangelo and Da Vinci influenced his work. He came to Rome in 1508 to work for the papacy, and became famous for his work in the papal apartments done under Julius II, especially for a quintessential Renaissance fresco, the School of Athens. Raphael rose to fame during a time when the idea of artists as mere craftsmen was changing into an exultation of individual artists. Everybody, including Agostino, wanted “a Raphael” (Jones and Penny 81). Raphael became an important and well-respected figure in the Papal court; he was described as “genial, even-tempered, generous, high-minded” and “genuinely loved” (Gardner 491).

Raphael, Self-Portrait

Raphael began work on the Chigi Chapel around 1513. Unlike other chapels at the time, which would have been planned by a group of specialists, Raphael was the lone central planner. He “orchestrated” all of the elements, from the architecture to the sculpture to the paintings (Shearman 155). Unfortunately, both artist and patron died in 1520, within 4 days of one another, so neither saw the final result of their money and planning. Only the basic structure and the mosaic in the dome had been completed by this time, so the rest of the chapel may not have matched Raphael’s original intentions. Nonetheless, the chapel is still a clear example of a Renaissance work, and the themes of immortality and resurrection are apparent throughout.

Raphael had planned for the basic architecture of the chapel to have an octagonal shape with tall proportions reaching upwards toward the heaven displayed in the dome. The chapel features four triumphal arches: one over the entrance, one over the altar, and two over the tombs to symbolize the Chigis’ triumph over death. The magnificent Agostino spent over 22,000 scudi on the chapel, and this lavishness can be seen in the range of expensive materials that Raphael used, including polychrome and white marble, bronze, gold, paint, and mosaic. Raphael himself enjoyed the rich and the ornate, and so Chigi’s wealth was a good match for his tastes. All of the structural elements are white marble, with details filled in with pink, grey, orange, and green marbles. Fluted Corinthian pilasters of white marble with grey veins frame the chapel, inspired by classical architecture. At the top is a solid dome with a central oculus, probably inspired by the Pantheon.

The view of the Chapel from the entryway.

The dome is an important aspect of the chapel as it represents the heaven that Agostino and Sigismondo ascend to as they achieve immortal life. It is gilded with gold, which reflects light and furthers the image of heaven, and is also coffered, which adds a sense of depth. The images in the dome make up several concentric circles. In the cupola, the innermost circle, is a mosaic of God the Father, looking down at the viewer and surrounded by angels. Luigi de Pace completed this mosaic in 1516. From the ideal viewpoint at the entrance of the chapel, God appears to be standing on the edge of oculus, the apex of Agostino and Sigismondo’s ascent into heaven. The cupola is surrounded by eight images of angels keeping the planets, represented by their respective Olympic gods, in motion. This ring of images is surrounded by the outermost circle, comprised of windows interspersed with images of the Creation story. The windows let in more light and create a sense of continuity with the blue sky outside. Salviati completed all of these images after Raphael’s death.

The dome and cupola, with the God the Father mosaic in the middle.

The tombs of Agostino and Sigismondo further the themes of immortality and resurrection in the chapel. Lorenzetto completed both marble tombs after Raphael’s death. Each tomb has a sarcophagus shaped like a hybrid pyramid-obelisk, a form that is “endowed with movement,” pointing straight up towards heaven and God the Father in the dome of the chapel (Shearman 137). Obelisks also have funerary connotations from antiquity, as they were used on ancient Roman tombs. The tombs were created simpler than Raphael originally intended; he wanted to put bronze narrative reliefs on both tombs, one of which was completed and later moved to the altar front. Again, the triumphal arches over the tombs emphasize the two Chigi brother’s triumph over death as they move towards eternal life.

The tombs of Agostino (on the right) and Sigismondo (on the left).

Two marble sculptures were added to the tomb after Raphael’s death. Both are biblical figures connected to the theme of eternal life and acceptance into heaven. The first, a figure of Jonah, is a prelude to the Resurrection of Christ, since Jonah was resurrected from the belly of a whale. The second statue of Elijah represents the Ascension of Christ, because Elijah once ascended into heaven on a chariot of fire. These statues were placed on either side of the entrance right next to the tombs, thus connecting them to Agostino and Sigismondo and their own resurrection. We do not know if Raphael ever planned to have figures in the other two niches, and they would not be filled for over a century.

The altarpiece of the Chapel is The Nativity of the Virgin, painted by Sebastiano del Piombo and later finished by Salviati. The image honors the Blessed Virgin of Loreto, whom the chapel is dedicated to. However, there is speculation that this is not the image Raphael had originally planned for the altar. Some scholars argue that Raphael had plans for an “Assunta” piece, or an image of the Assumption of the Virgin. This would make a lot of sense; an image of the Virgin entering into the heaven, represented in the dome above, would fit better with the themes of the triumph over death and immortal life present in the rest of the chapel, as well as contribute to the overall vertical feel of the chapel. There is even evidence of some Assunta drawings done by Raphael around the time he was planning the Chigi Chapel (Shearman 146). Sebastiano, the painter of the altarpiece, also produced drawings for an Assunta from this time period.

There are also four paintings in the tondi, or circles, above the statue niches. These paintings were done by Salviati and represent the four seasons. This can be tied to the themes of triumph over death if one compares the cycle of the seasons with the cycle of life. Winter represents death while spring is rebirth, just like the death of Agostino and Sigismondo and their subsequent rebirth in heaven.

The imagery of the Chapel emphasizes the themes of immortality and resurrection. Not only does this imagery serve a religious function, showing Christians the eternal life in heaven that awaits them, but it also commemorates Agostino and Sigismondo Chigi. Being inside the illustrious Chigi chapel reminds the viewer of Agostino’s magnificence. In remembering him and his brother, and by witnessing the physical representation of their ascent into heaven, the viewer also commemorates their memory, thereby ensuring their eternal life and fame. Further, the chapel provides a good example of Renaissance architecture, painting, and sculpture. Raphael created a chapel full of symmetry, harmony, and classical influence, all key traits of Renaissance art. But, the Chapel was never finished, and would be paid for by another Chigi patron and planned by another great artist over one hundred years later.

After Agostino’s death, his one surviving son lost the family fortune, and his side of the Chigi line died out. Fortunately, Sigismonodo’s family continued to prosper in Siena. The next significant patron of the Chigi Chapel was Fabio Chigi, great-grandson of Sigismondo. Fabio studied law, theology, and philosophy in Siena and embarked on an ecclesiastical career. In 1652, the Pamphilj pope Innocent X made made Fabio a cardinal; soon after, Innocent died. Fabio was then elected as the new pope and took the name Alexander VII. Alexander decided to restore his family chapel, the Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo, which had been his titular church as a cardinal. The chapel had fallen into disrepair and still awaited completion. Symbolically, Alexander began the restoration in the holy year of 1650, during a jubilee in which the sins of all Catholics are forgiven.

When deciding whom to commission for the restoration of the Chigi Chapel, there was little doubt in Alexander’s mind that the great Bernini was the right man for the job. Alexander VII was the third pope that Bernini had worked under, most significantly on the St. Peter’s Square, which has Alexander’s name all over it. Bernini was the most prolific artist of the Baroque period and transformed the face of Rome during his long and successful career. One scholar notes that “Bernini was architect, painter, and sculptor, one of the most brilliant and imaginative artists of the Baroque era and, if not the originator of the Baroque, probably its most characteristic and sustaining spirit” (Gardner 584).

Bernini’s work on the Chigi Chapel, a commission that came in his later life, added a distinctly Baroque twist to the themes that Raphael had planned over one hundred years before during the Renaissance. Through his work on the chapel, Bernini created an interactive experience, a drama for the viewer to partake in, which is a distinct feature of Baroque art. He began by making some minor changes to the chapel. First, he enlarged the windows in the dome to let in more light, re-gilded the dome, and cleaned the cupola. This work made the heavenly function of the dome more apparent. He also added a marble medallion to each tomb with a portrait, painted by Vanni, of Agostino and Sigismondo, allowing even better commemoration of the Chigi brothers. Bernini also moved the bronze relief on Agostino’s tomb to the altar and did not add the relief to Sigismondo’s tomb that Raphael had planned. He therefore patched over the areas that were left on the tombs for these reliefs, effectively simplifying the tombs.

Bernini also paved the floor in marble in a pattern that reflects the dome above it. In the center, Bernini added an image of a flying skeleton, representing death, carrying the combined Chigi/della Rovere coat of arms. The inscription beneath the skeleton reads “death opens the way to heaven,” and the uppercase letters of MDCL stand for the holy year of 1650 in which the restoration was undertaken. By adding this image of death to the floor, Bernini emphasized the vertical motion from death to eternal life in heaven, represented in the cupola of the dome.

The most significant change that Bernini made to the Chigi Chapel, however, was the addition of two new statues. The biblical figures carved out of marble come from the story of Bel and the Dragon, which is in the extended Book of Daniel. In the story, Bel is a false idol that people worship, but Daniel does not worship him and proves that he does not exist. In their anger, the people have Daniel thrown into a den of lions. God then calls to the prophet Habakkuk to bring food to Daniel so that he may survive, which Habakkuk reluctantly does, and Daniel makes it out of the lion’s den alive. The Daniel sculpture, completed in 1657, shows Daniel praying to God and looking up to the heaven physically manifested in the cupola. Meanwhile a lion gently licks his foot, showing that because Daniel is pious he is safe from harm.

Bernini's Daniel

The Habakkuk sculpture, completed in 1661, shows an angel of God telling Habakkuk to go to the lion’s den. The angel is grabbing Habakkuk’s head and pointing towards the Daniel sculpture, where God wants him to go, while Habakkuk, with his frightened face, is pointing in the opposite direction, where he would rather go. We can also see Habakkuk carrying the basket of food that he will eventually bring to Daniel in the lion’s den. Bernini placed Habakkuk to the right of the altar, so it is one of the first things the viewer sees upon entering the chapel. Bernini also moved the Jonah statue out of its niche to the left of the entryway and moved it to the left of the altar; this way, he could place the Daniel sculpture to the left of the entryway, creating a diagonal spatial relationship between Habakkuk and Daniel (Hibbard 187).

Bernini's Habakkuk

By arranging the statues in such a way, Bernini creates a new experience and an illusion of drama, turning viewer into participant. If the viewer first looks at Habakkuk, they notice the finger of the angel pointing at Daniel and follow this line with their eyes. After looking at the Daniel sculpture, the viewer will notice that he is looking up at God the Father in the cupola. To best view the God mosaic, however, the viewer must stand directly in front of the altar and the Nativity of the Virgin altarpiece. In this way, Bernini brings the chapel to life and creates interaction both between the different pieces of the chapel and between the viewer and the chapel itself. By interacting with the chapel, the viewer commemorates the two Chigi brothers who are buried there, fulfilling the function of their namesake Chigi Chapel.

A diagram of the drama and movement of the chapel

Bernini’s work in the restoration of the chapel furthered Raphael’s original themes of immortality and resurrection, but also created a drama within the Chapel through his unique Baroque style, drawing the viewer into the space. Through his additions to the Chapel, Bernini creates a whole new experience, whereas Raphael’s Renaissance design was more passive, allowing the viewer to see the message and commemorate the Chigis, but not actually participate. Bernini completed what Raphael started, but changed things around a bit to better match his style and time period. The message of the Chigi’s ascent into heaven and Agostino’s magnificence is still there with the added illusion of drama.

The Chigi Chapel serves both a religious and a commemorative function. When Raphael started work on the Chapel during the Renaissance, it showed the viewer how Agostino, his brother Sigismondo, and any other Christian viewer would be resurrected from death into the heaven above. Raphael’s Chapel simultaneously commemorated Agostino’s magnificence because of its splendor. When Bernini renovated the chapel over 100 years later during the Baroque, he continued this message, but made it something that the viewer partakes in, creating a dramatic experience. Although it took generations of Chigi’s to complete the chapel, as well as two different artists and artistic styles, the final product cements the Chigi reputation forever and ensures their safe passage to heaven.

Works Cited

Bauer, George and Linda. “Bernini’s Organ-Case for the S. Maria del Popolo.” The Art Bulletin, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Mar. 1980), pp. 115-23.

Gardner. Art Through the Ages. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, pp. 487-92, 581-88.

Hibbard, Howard. Bernini. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1965, pp. 185-91.

Jones, Roger and Nicholas Penny. Raphael. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983, pp. 81-111.

Majanlahti, Anthony. “The Chigi.” The Families Who Made Rome. London: Chatto & Windus, 2005, pp. 321-73.

Rowland, Ingrid D. “Some Panegyrics to Agostino Chigi.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtland Institutes, Vol. 47 (1984), pp. 194-99.

Shearman, John. “The Chigi Chapel in S. Maria del Popolo.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtland Institutes, Vol. 24, No. 3/4 (Jul.-Dec. 1961), pp.129-60.

no time to blog!

Well I am in Antwerp, Belgium! I have been so busy with traveling and sightseeing, plus a few assignments to finish up for the Rome program, that I haven't found the time to blog. But Antwerp is great so far, we are couchsurfing here and our hosts are awesome. They are three girls, all students, who live in a cute little apartment near the center of the city. Today we just explored the city for a while and saw the main sites. Tomorrow we are going to Brussels (only 40 minutes by train) and then Saturday we are hopefully going to Amsterdam (a little longer train ride, about 2 hours). It's all been quite an adventure and I am enjoying every second of it one way or another!

the city of light

Sorry for the lack of blog posting... the last week or so has been crazy busy. I left Rome on Friday, and have been in Paris since then, which I am absolutely loving.

The last week of the program was packed with stuff to do. I had my art history presentation, my final test in Gifts and Sacrifice class, and a few papers to write. We also had to have our last hurrahs in Rome, of course. The final days were so fun and yet bittersweet because I will miss Rome so much, and will also miss being with all the friends I made on the program. We will all see each other often in Seattle though, I'm sure.

Paris has been great. It is such a different city from Rome, so it has been refreshing-plus it is about 20 degrees cooler! We are staying in my mom's cousin's daugther's apartment (not quite sure what that makes us... 2nd cousins once removed? who knows) in the 18th arrd., so a little north of the city center. The apartment is great and we are loving having a free place to stay that feels more like home than a hostel. So far we have seen the Montmarte area, the Sacre Coeur, the Louvre (!!), Notre Dame, Moulin Rouge, the Arc de Triomph, the Latin Quarter, and the finish of Le Tour de France on the Champs-Elysees! That was so awesome. Plus we have had some great picnics with baugettes and cheese in beautiful gardens around the city, crossaints and coffee at the brasseries, and plenty of exploring. I am having an amazing time traveling with my friend Alicia. We usually make a tentative plan of what we want to see in a day, but aren't so strict in sticking to it that we get time to wander around the city, which I love.

I will try to post pictures from the last week in Rome soon, and also from Paris!

Next stop: Belgium!

orvieto

On Friday, our group took an overnight trip to the beautiful town of Orvieto! The town is in the Umbria region of Italy, and it rests up on a hill with medieval walls surrounding it. It used to be an ancient Etruscan city, and over the years it was populated by the Romans, and then became a sort of a fortress in medieval times, so it has many layers of history. Being up on the hill provides great views of the Italian countryside in all directions.

Upon arriving, we first checked into our hotel, the Grand Italia. The hotel was really nice. After getting some lunch, we walked around the town (it is really small so this doesn't take very long) in search of some good views. We found a great spot and explored the area for a while, enjoying the scenery. I also liked seeing the quaint little side streets of the town as we walked around.

Sheida and me at the first viewpoint we found

One of Orvieto's many small, quiet streets.

We met up with the group later for a visit to Orvieto's Duomo, or cathedral. Inside we saw the Capella di San Brizio with frescoes by Signorelli. The gothic church was really beautiful and was like a miniature version of Florence's Duomo.

Il Duomo, Orvieto's cathedral

Crazy organ inside the Duomo!

Capella di San Brizio

After the Duomo visit, some of us walked down to see the Albornoz Fortress, which is now a public park. We walked along the walls that surrounded and protected the city in medieval times, which was really cool. Once, again, the views were AMAZING. We also saw the remains of an ancient Etruscan temple, probably from around 6 or 7 BC! So old.

Part of the fortress

The walls surrounding the hill town of Orvieto

Then it was time for our group dinner! We went to a nice little place called Antico Bucchero. I had some sort of pasta with vegetables which I forget the name of for primi, veal with a balsamic sauce for secondi, and of course tiramisu for dolci, all with the vino bianco which Orvieto is known for. After dinner we found another great lookout spot and sat in the grass for a while, looking up at the stars and watching fireflies go by. Life doesn't get much better than moments like this.

On Saturday, we had breakfast at the hotel and then headed to the Pozzo San Patrizio, which is a well from medieval times that has a unique double-helix design so that donkeys getting water could go down one side and up the other. We walked all the way down to the bottom of the well, which was cool, both literally and figuratively!

The view from the bottom of the well

Outside of the well-yet another amazing view!

After our visit to the well we had a bit of free time before catching the train, so we wandered around the town, looking at the ceramic shops that Orvieto is known for. We also had chance to climb the clock tower, which is the highest point of Orvieto. The 360 degree views up there were great, and it was super windy which felt good since it was so hot. After spending some time up there we got sandwiches and headed for the train station.

The view from the top of the clock tower-the roofs of Orvieto, the Duomo, and the hills of Umbria.

I really liked Orvieto because of the small-town feel, and also because it didn't feel touristy at all. It was a relaxing experience, and when I come back to Italy someday, I definitely want to spend more time exploring the countryside. Now I can't believe that this is my last week in Roma!

daily diary

Each of us has to write a Daily Diary for one day of the program-see my entry for Thursday:

http://dailydiarys09.blogspot.com/

Another blog to come soon about our trip to Orvieto!

old friends in new places, new friends in old places

Well, Saturday night I had the pleasant surprise of meeting up with my friend Rachael from back home! It was kind of surreal but really cool to hang out with her here. I showed her my apartment, then took her to aperitivo in Trastevere, my favorite gelato place Giolitti, and to drink from the Trevi fountain to ensure that we will both return to Roma. It was good to see a familiar face in a city that is new for both of us, and it also reminded me how much fun I am having with all of my new friends in the ancient city of Rome :)

Rach and me at the Trevi

Sunday was devoted solely to working on our independent project. My section was about the Ara Pacis Augustae and the propagandistic role it played during the Mussolini era; since Augustus was a powerful leader who restored greatness to Rome and expanded the Roman empire, Mussolini wanted to tie himself to Augustus to show that he, too, would do the same thing for Rome. He did this through restoring ancient monuments like the Ara Pacis, which was dedicated to Augustus, and reframing them in a way that contributed to his own political needs.

We presented on our project on Monday, and I think it went pretty well. It was interesting to research, but it is a relief to have it done! Now I have earned 5 of the 15 credits I will be getting in Rome. Whoo! We also had Mona's class, which has switched gears from focus on The Gift to focus on Sacrifice. This is a very provocative subject and I am enjoying our class discussions about it, especially as it relates to religion. The classroom gets really hot though!

At night we went on a gelato trek and ran into this wedding party on the way. It was super cool because the whole group was dancing in the cobblestone street, singing to loud music and having a great time; we even joined them for just a second. Their pure joy was definitely contagious and made my night.

On Tuesday, we went over to the Palazzo Barberini on the Quirinale Hill. They were a powerful family in Rome, one son went on to the papacy, and the Palazzo is their palace. The palazzo is now a museum and you can see some of the rooms that the family lived in. We even got to go inside a room that is close to the public-the frescoe on the ceiling is something that Lisa researched for a few years!

"Divine Providence" ceiling frescoe

Secret room of art storage and unknown frescoe!

The outside of the Palazzo Barberini-so grandiose!

After the palazzo, Lisa took us to one of the supposedly two best coffee places in Rome, Caffe Tazza d'Oro (I went to the other one, Caffe Sant'Eustachio, with Sheida a few weeks ago). I got a macchiato and it was pretty good! I think I liked Tazza d'Oro better, although I got different drinks at the two places so that probably isn't a fair comparison.

Later that night, we went and sat by the Pantheon and in the Campo for a while. One of the boys from our program had checked out a guitar from the Rome Center so we listened while he played. We also met some really nice girls from Austria in the Campo that we talked to for a while. It was a fun and relaxing evening. OH and we saw the family from the TLC show "Little People Big World" being filmed by the Pantheon! So that was cool. The Obama's were in town for the G8 conference while we were in Florence, and apparently Michelle and the kids were by the Pantheon too. I'm kind of sad that I was gone while they were here; we live so close to the Pantheon, there is a good chance I could have seen them! Oh well.

Today, we had Gifts and Sacrifice class with two presentations and an interesting discussion about Cain and Able. After that, for Art History we heard a presentation about the Madonnas which are scattered all around Rome, and then went to Piazza Navona and learned about Bernini's "Fountain of the Four Rivers." There are four figures on the fountain, each representing one of the four great rivers of the world-the Nile, the Danube, the Ganges, and I forget the other one. I had actually never been to Piazza Navona during the day; it definitely had a different feel! I still think that I like the fountain better at night, though.

One of the many Madonna shrines that decorate Roma

Close-up of the "Fountain of the Four Rivers"

There is so much to see and do in this last week and a half! A presentation, two papers, and a test... I will definitely be busy. But for now I am looking forward to our overnight trip to Orvieto on Friday!